The Golden Age of Muslims Science

Introduction

Islam is a religion that began in the 7^th century with the prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in Mecca. Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was a messenger sent by God to teach people the right way to live. Islam is an Arabic word which means “submission” to God.

The holy book of Islam is the Quran, and the center for Muslim worship is the “house of prayer “(Kaaba) in Mecca

Islamic golden age was a period of cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8^th century to the 14^th century.

Early Islam spread rapidly from its centers in the Middle East to the West to Cairo (Egypt), across North Africa into South Africa and southern Spain, and to the East through Persia (now Iran) towards Asia. The period of approximately 750 to 1050 AD was a “golden age “for the Islamic world.

Muslim scholars and scientists made great development and discoveries. Early Islam teaching encouraged and promoted the pursuit of scholarship and science. Seeking knowledge about the natural world was seen as the duty of every Muslim as the following Hadith.

‘He who pursues the road of knowledge, Allah will direct to the road of paradise (Turner et al.,2010)

Things that improved the quality of life, like science and technology, were encouraged and welcomed. These included practical things like navigational aids from travelers, geographical maps, medical knowledge, ways of measuring and calculating, and tools for agriculture. The use of paper and books was very important in sharing and promoting knowledge in early Islam. The Muslims learned how to make paper from Chinese papermakers, and a paper mill was built in Baghdad. A huge book industry was established and there were bookshops and important libraries in cities right throughout the Islamic empire.

During this period there was great emphasis on the pursuit of knowledge.  Consequently, some individuals lived scholarly and pious lives, such as Ibn Sina, Alkhwarizmi, and Al-Biruni, who in addition to excellence in the study of religious texts also excelled in mathematics, geography, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and medicine. Currently, Islam was not just a set of religious beliefs, but a set of ideas, ethics, and ideas encompassing all aspects of human life. This resulted in the establishment of the Islamic civilization.

While the progress of scientific knowledge in Europe languished during the dark ages, science flourished in the golden age of Islam (Fārūqī et al., 1981)

Islamic view of nature

The Islamic view of nature during the golden age had its root in the Quran, the every word of God and the basis of Islam, a Muslim scholar at that time were inspired to study nature in the context of the Quran. The following passages from the Quran illustrate the relationship between nature and man and how this relationship inspired Muslim scholars to study the natural phenomenon, to understand God.

God said in the Quran “We created not the heavens, the earth, and all between them, merely in sport. We created them not except for just ends but most of them do not understand” (surah AL-Baqara   44: 38- 39).

Behold, in the creation of the heavens and the earth, in the alternation of the night and the day: in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind, in the rain which Allah sends down from the skies and the life which He gives therewith to an earth that is dead: in the beast of all kinds that he scatters through the earth, in the change of the winds and clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth; indeed are signs for a wise people (surah Ad-Dukham 2; 164).

Thus, it was concluded that God created the world and placed man in it as trustee, to benefit from it, to use it wisely, and to understand his purpose in the universe.

Thus, mankind was inspired to study, understand and mold the natural forces for its purposes. The point to note is the general empirical attitude of the Quran which engendered in its followers a feeling of reverence and thus made them founders of an enlightened society (Kettani et al.,1976).

The contribution of Islamic scholars

The Islamic empire consisted of a society that was multicultural in terms of languages, customs, traditions, and religion. As Muslims went forth from Arabia to conquer the countries surrounding them, they encompassed vast lands with people of different faith and cultures. Thus, the Islamic Empire not only consisted of Muslims from three continents, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Africans, Indians, and other Asians but also Jews, Christians, and others faith. Therefore, scholars from all faiths worked under the umbrella of Islam to produce a unique culture of knowledge and learning (Koran et al.,1977).

Contribution of Muslim scholar in different fields of science

Medicine

Muslims gained access to the Greek medical knowledge of Hippocrates, Dioscorides, and Galen through the translation of their works in the seventh and eighth centuries. Two Muslim physicians who become known in Europe during this period were Ibn Sina and Al-Razi. Ibn Sina devoted his life to the study of medicine, philosophy, and other branches of science. Renowned throughout medieval Europe as Avicenna, he established free hospitals and developed treatments for disease using herbs, hot bath, and even major surgery. His famous book the canon of medicine was translated into Latin in the twelfth century and it was used in medical schools throughout Europe until the advent of modern science.

Ibn-Sina wrote 99 books dealing with philosophy, medicine, geometry, astronomy, theology, and art. Ibn-Sina was also known for Kitab al Shifa, in which he divided practical knowledge into ethics, economics and politics, and theoretical knowledge into mathematics, physics, and metaphysics (Meyers, 1964).

Al-Razi known in Latin Rhazes excelled in the power of observations and wrote some 184 works on topics that he studied as a practicing doctor. One of Al-Razi books, treatise smallpox, and measles, was translated into Latin, then English and other European languages, and went through forty editions between the fifteenth and nineteenth-century’ furthermore he established separate wards in hospital for mentally ill, thereby creating the means for clinical observations of these diseases. By the twelfth century, Muslim physicians had produced many works, encyclopedias, medical Biographics, texts on medical ethics, and special topics such as ophthalmology. Ibn A Nafis contradicted the theories of blood circulation as put forward by Galen.

Muslims using their clinical and surgical knowledge established hospitals. These institutions were far superior to any that existed in ancient times or lands beyond the Islamic empire. important surgical treatises were written in the eleventh centuries in Andalusia by Abu-Qasim al-Zahrawi, known in Europe as Abulcais. His book Kitab al – tariff, a medical almanac, was translated into Latin a used by Muslims and in European medical schools.

The medical theory was combined with traditional herbal lore, alchemy and a huge range of material media natural materials used to create medicine like alchemy, the medical theory was based on the Greek concept of the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water). These elements were related to four humors, and disease was supposed to be caused by an imbalance in the humor (Turner et al.,2010)

Chemistry, pharmacology, and pharmacy

In chemistry, the works of jabber bin Haiyan and Al- Razi formed the basis of modern science. Jaber, known as Geber in Latin, described in his works the preparation of many chemical substances; the Sulphide of mercury, oxides, and arsenic compounds. Al-Razi in his book secret of secrets known as liber Secretorum bubacaris, described the chemical process and experiments he conducted. Muslim chemists developed recipes for products that had industrial and military applications. The discoveries of inorganic acids during chemical experiments had valuable industrial applications in the centuries that followed.

A huge amount of practical knowledge of substance and process was gained. Important methods such as distillation were developed by Islamic scientists, as well as new approaches to experimentation. Muslim scientists were also the first to describe the properties of acids and alkalis (Berggren, 1997).

In the field of pharmacology and pharmacy, Muslims made notable progress. These fields involved a scientific investigation into the composition, dosages, uses, and therapeutic effects of drugs. Having translations of Dioscorides ‘De Material Medica ‘along with knowledge from Syria, Persia, India, and the far east, Muslim scholars and physicians showed great innovative skills.

They developed the procedure for the manufacture of syrups and juleps and established -apothecary shops. Ibn al- Baytar ‘s book Al- Jami’fi al Tibb contained detailed records of the plants in the lands along the length of the Mediterranean coast between Spain and Syria. Besides, he systematically compared this knowledge with that of the scientists of previous eras. His book was used until the renaissance by Europeans.

Mathematical science

The mathematical science as practiced in the Islamic world during this period consisted of Mathematics, algebra, and geometry as well as mathematical geography, astronomy, and optics. Muslims derived their theory of Numbers in arithmetic from translations of the Greek source such as books 8 through 9 of Euclid’s Elements and the introduction to the science of Numbers by Nicomachus of Gerasa.

Mohammad bin Ahmad in the tenth century involved the concept of zero or sifr. In mathematics. Thus, replacing the cumbersome Roman numerals and creating a revolution in mathematics. Thus led to advances in the prediction of the movement of the planets in the fields of astronomy and geography. Muslims mathematics had inherited both the Babylonian sexagesimal system and the Indian decimal system, and this provided the basis for numerical techniques in mathematic. Muslims built mathematical models using the decimal system.

Muslim mathematics was interested in several systems. they used two main systems of numerals; the abjad system which used letters of the Arabic alphabet to represent numbers, and the Hindu Arabic numerals which are now used in the west including zero.

Algebra first became a separate field of mathematics in Islam. The word algebra comes from the Arabic word al-jabr which means restoring balance in an equation. The development of algebra allowed mathematicians to represent numbers in the form of generalized symbols. Umar Khayyam, famous for his poetry, was an important mathematician who wrote a treatise on algebra (Rashed, 2002).

Technology

The dry and arid environment of Arab lands meant that it was important to develop technologies, especially for water and agriculture. Islamic engineering included reservoirs, aqueducts, water wheels, and elaborate systems for irrigation. New knowledge of plants and natural history also contributed to agriculture.

Islamic technology included papermaking, the manufacture of steel and other metals, building, and great technical advances in the tools and scientific instruments (Beshore, 1998).

Why did the Golden age come to an end?

A few scholars date the end of the golden age around 1350 linking with the Timurid Renaissance, while several modern historians and scholars place the end of the Islamic Golden age as late as the end of 15^th to 16^th centuries meeting with the age of Islamic Gunpowers.

By the end of the 11^th century, the Islamic empire had become very large and towards the end of the Abbasid Caliphate, it began to crumble. Religious disagreements caused divisions between different groups and the caliphs exerted more and more control over what was taught and where. Logic rationalism and the philosopher of Aristotle began to make educated Muslims more skeptical and drew them away from orthodox religious beliefs. The caliph became afraid that they would lose power and imposed a return to orthodox.

Science and philosophy were criticized. More and more, schools and academies were forced to limit their teaching to theology.  The science was divided INTO APPROVED Islamic sciences which were connected to religion and foreign sciences (Bammate, 1959)

References: 

1. Fārūqī, I. R. A. (1981). Social and natural sciences: The Islamic perspective.
2. Kettani, M. A. (1976). Moslem Contributions to the Natural Sciences. Impact of Science on Society.
3. Koran, & Pickthall, M. (1977). The glorious Quran: Text and explanatory translation. New York.
4. Meyers, E. A. (1964). Arabic Thought and the Western World. New York, Fredrick Ungar.
5. Turner, H. R. (2010). Science in medieval Islam: an illustrated introduction. University of Texas Press.
6. Berggren, J. L. (1997). Mathematics and her sisters in medieval Islam: A selective review of work done from 1985 to 1995. Historia Mathematica, 24(4), 407-440.
7. Rashed, R. (2002). A polymath in the 10th century: Ibn al-Haytham (10 to 11th century AD).(Portraits Of Science). Science, 297(5582), 773-773.
8. Beshore, G. (1988). Science in Early Islamic Culture, New York: F.
9. Bammate, N. (1959). The status of science and technique in Islamic Civilization. Philosophy East and West, 9(1), 23.

By: Muhammad Muzammal